Article about Chinese submarine force

Recently, the Russian satellite network published articles, the current Chinese Navy equipment, 66-75 submarines, to the 30 s, the Chinese Navy Equipment All-class submarine number will be expanded to 99 vessels, and in the same period U.S. Navy only 53 vessels, as a result, China will be in the navy submarine in number more than the United States Nearly 1 times the amount of absolute, take advantage of the short term, even if some of the Chinese submarine performance and still can't comparable to the army , however, there is reason to believe that the Chinese Navy Submarine Force is already the world's most powerful underwater combat power.
Submarine Force is Chinese Navy one of five big outfit, currently owns more than 50 warships conventionally-powered submarines and more than 10 nuclear submarine, and has a long-range strike capabilities and second strike capability. Especially in recent years with the new submarine such as 039, 093, 094 gradually improved type of service, the Chinese Navy submarine quantity and quality are significantly increased in number, are more than Russia, the United States In the country, and the quality of its main performance has been close to western countries similar equipment advanced level.
Single total from submarine in the navy, China surpassed the United States Navy. It's just a matter of time, will be the fastest 2016-2017 annual achieve beyond. But we have to be a submarine, especially in strategic nuclear submarine completed beyond, there is a lot of variables, especially Chinese Navy's strategic objectives and the United States Navy's strategic objectives exists between huge differences, Chinese Navy does not need to be like that of the United States Navy The intention to control the sea, the world won't be too much to build more than their own defence needs nuclear submarines, and therefore the number of nuclear submarines, the Chinese Navy "Super Russian catch us" is still a long road.
The United States and relevant research institutions doubt Chinese submarine "noise, communication hard, base vulnerable to attack" and other issues, and no reliable evidence, is a purely subjective speculation. In fact, China has always been valued navy submarine noise issues, whether active or the old-fashioned submarine in the construction of the new submarine, all taken from the corresponding measures, especially the new submarine, according to a public figure, its noise level close to the United States of Los Angeles - class submarine, is better than the Russian Delta III class submarine.
In Communication, the Chinese Navy radio signals through long wavelength, already have and global any waters of submarine real-time two-way communication capabilities, and neutrino and laser communications to dive achieved considerable progress in the future and put into practical use. As for the Chinese submarine base security issue, due to the China bank ki aviation and long-Range Anti-aircraft missiles tight protection, the enemy attacked her the possibility is very low.
JL-Type 2 Submarine-launched missile the successful development of my country, to make a truly reliable underwater nuclear deterrence capability. In my country to travel to the united states mainland waters near the route, the United States and Japan have deployed, including anti-Submarine Patrol aircraft, including the powerful anti-Submarine Force, against my country ballistic missile submarine constitutes an extremely serious threat. The Maximum range improve to 8000 km of JL-Type 2 Submarine-launched missile to a certain extent. I shortened the submarine to attack the front needed distance, but beautiful day of anti-submarine strength will still be a threat to them. It is precisely for that reason, the waves-2 missiles, the successful development of my country researchers did not stop their footsteps. According to various media reports, I'm ready for the development of a range of 1 to 1.2 million kilometers of submarine-launched missile, this missile is likely in JL-2 missile on the basis of an improved, outside Vector will improve this type play become JL-2 a. Fruit can be developed in the range of thousands of kilometers submarine-launched missile, then it means that my country's Sea-based nuclear deterrence capability will catch up with the United States and Russia for advanced countries, underwater combat power reliability will be adequately protected.
New world rankings, nuclear submarine
First Name: The United States Virginia-class submarine
Second place: U.S. Seawolf-class submarine
Third place: Russian Yasen-class submarine
Fourth: China 093 G-class submarine
093 G-class submarine is China's Navy class submarine.
In February 2015, a photo shows, China Calabash Island Shipyard suspected has completed 3 vessels 093 g nuclear powered attack submarine construction work, and started to have service.
The class submarine suspected to be the 093-class submarine of improved model, and probably already has vertical missile launcher, hence the media referred to as "aircraft carrier killer".

Announcement about new Session

Very Sad English story

My Disability

(nafisa, Hong Kong)

As soon as I heard the news of the special offer ,I knew that I must do,instantaneously I rushed to my boyfriend,hugged him in a very confluent way,expressed out my gleeful happiness to him for I knew no one else except him would be enlightened to hear out this shocking news.

I had spent over a year searching for this very offer but every time my attempts would not be successful.Assuming that my capabilities are of no use,I believed that there is never going to come a time where I would finally embrace my hard earned success.

My mind had became so much pessimistic,my goals were all destroyed,each time these words would come into my ears straight away:"You're disable and we cant hire you for our job".My disability turned out to become my huge weakness and to the world,it manifested a strong reason to get rid of me and my pledges.
Outside world ,the financial struggles,peer pressure would not bother me even a bit ,as I had a genuine person like a shadow with me who was always so respectful to me and he's pretty little surprises ,never failed to amuse me.

However,It was all different whenever I was at home.......

My father and my brothers never ever felt the urge to put their eyes upon me.I was now and then feeling suffocated and more like an orphan kid sitting on that cold floor,barely being able to lay on bed on my own.Their negligence compelled me day and night to miss my passed away mother more than a lot. My tears would roll down my cheeks,with her framed picture in my lap but there was no one at my pressence to console me,comfort me and hear out my hidden screaming voices.

Life seemed very impossible to me but each time I holded on a little more ,I took a deep breath and exhaled out the negative words that were fixed in my broken soul.I forged on a sweet gentle smile on every Saturday mornings when I would go to the temple and take abundant care of the left out children and the neediest .Sitting on my supportive chair which is prevaillingly called a "wheelchair".To the world it was just a chair ,to me it became my everything after my tragic accident that happend on a new year's eve night.

People considered it to be an ominous thing for me but I ignored their thoughts on me. Why ? Because you know who is the person who has to go through amassments of struggles and difficulties ? The very one person whom GOD has his abundance of blessings upon him or her .Surely,GOD has His blessings on each and everyone of us but to the one He handles over problems and disabilities ,He has greatest of expectations from him to observe how patiently he lives his life and how many times a day he glorifies his LORD.

They say leave everything on GOD and the betterment will be in your favor like a pouring rain and shining rainbow.

I planned to do so like-wisely,I started being extravagantly thankful to the luxuries that I had and stopped howling .Gradually with the positive insight of my soul, the motivating and supportive words from my buddy had helped me to become a more better person both inside out. I was learning to appreciate more often ,smiling without any special reason.And this was the reason why I decided to apply for a job once again,with the least of expectations . With the support of my partner and love of my GOD , I was successful in my ambition and my showed the world that my abilities could overcome my disability .

AIk Shakhs ki teen betiyan

ایک شخص کے ہاں صرف بیٹیاں تھیں ہر مرتبہ اس کو امید ہوتی کہ اب تو بیٹا پیدا ہوگا مگر ہر بار بیٹی ہی پیدا ہوتی اس طرح اس کے ہاں یکے بعد دیگرے چھ بیٹیاں ہوگئیں اس کی بیوی کے ہاں پھر ولادت متوقع تھی وہ ڈر رہا تھا کہ کہیں پھر لڑکی پیدا نہ ہو جائے شیطان نے اس کو بہکایا چناں چہ اس نے ارداہ کرلیا کہ اب بھی لڑکی پیدا ہوئی تو وہ اپنی بیوی کو طلاق دے دے گا۔ اس کی کج فہمی پر غور کریں بھلا اس میں بیوی کا کیا قصور۔ رات کو سویا تو اس نے عجیب وغریب خواب دیکھا اس نے دیکھا کہ قیامت برپا ہو چکی ہے اس کے گناہ بہت زیادہ ہیں جن کے سبب اس پر جہنم واجب ہوچکی ہے۔ لہٰذا فرشتوں نے اس کو پکڑا اور جہنم کی طرف لےگئے پہلے دروازے پر گئے۔ تو دیکھا کہ اس کی ایک بیٹی وہاں کھڑی تھی جس نے اسے جہنم میں جانے سے روک دیا۔ فرشتے اسے لے کر دوسرے دروازے پر چلے گئے وہاں اس کی دوسری بیٹی کھڑی تھی جو اس کے لئے آڑ بن گئی۔ اب وہ تیسرے دروازے پر اسے لے گئے وہاں تیسری لڑکی کھڑی تھی جو رکاو ٹ بن گئی۔ اس طرح فرشتے جس دروازے پر اس کو لے کر جاتے وہاں اس کی ایک بیٹی کھڑی ہوتی جو اس کا دفاع کرتی اور جہنم میں جانے سے روک دیتی۔ غرض یہ کہ فرشتے اسے جہنم کے چھ دروازوں پر لے کر گئے مگر ہر دروازے پر اس کی کوئی نہ کوئی بیٹی رکاوٹ بنتی چلی گئی۔ اب ساتواں دروازہ باقی تھا فرشتے اس کو لے کر اس دروازے کی طرف چل دیئے اس پر گھبراہٹ طاری ہوئی کہ اس دروازے پر میرے لئے رکاوٹ کون بنے گا اسے معلوم ہوگیا کہ جو نیت اس نے کی تھی غلط تھی وہ شیطان کے بہکاوے میں آگیا تھا۔ انتہائی پریشانی اور خوف ودہشت کے عالم میں اس کی آنکھ کھل چکی تھی اور اس نے رب العزت کے حضور اپنے ہاتھوں کو بلند کیا اور دعا کی۔ اللھم ارزقنا السابعۃ اے اللہ مجھے ساتویں بیٹی عطا فرما۔ اس لئے جن لوگوں کا قضا وقدر پر ایمان ہے انہیں لڑکیوں کی پیدائش پر رنجیدہ خاطر ہونے کی بجائے خوش ہونا چائیے ایمان کی کمزوری کے سبب جن بد عقیدہ لوگوں کا یہ تصور بن چکا ہے کہ لڑکیوں کی پیدائش کا سبب ان کی بیویاں ہیں یہ سرا سر غلط ہے اس میں بیویوں کا یا خود ان کا کوئی عمل دخل نہیں بلکہ میاں بیوی تو صرف ایک ذریعہ ہیں پیدا کرنے والی ہستی تو صرف اللہ وحدہ لاشریک لہ ہے وہی جس کو چاہتا ہے لڑکا دیتا ہے جس کو چاہتا ہے لڑکی دیتا ہے جس کو چاہتا ہے لڑکے اور لڑکیاں ملا کر دیتا ہے اور جس کو چاہتا ہے بانجھ بنا دیتا ہے ایسی صورت میں ہر مسلمان پر واجب ہے اللہ تعالی کی قضا وقدر پر راضی ہو اللہ تعالی نے سورہ شوری میں ارشاد فرمایا ہے؛ لِلَّهِ مُلْكُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ يَخْلُقُ مَا يَشَاءُ يَهَبُ لِمَنْ يَشَاءُ إِنَاثًا وَيَهَبُ لِمَنْ يَشَاءُ الذُّكُورَ (49) أَوْ يُزَوِّجُهُمْ ذُكْرَانًا وَإِنَاثًا وَيَجْعَلُ مَنْ يَشَاءُ عَقِيمًا إِنَّهُ عَلِيمٌ قَدِيرٌ (50) (ترجمہ)آسمانوں کی اور زمین کی سلطنت اللہ تعالی ہی کے لئے ہے وہ جو چاہتا ہے پیدا کرتا ہے جس کو چاہتا ہے بیٹیاں دیتا ہے اور جسے چاہتا ہے بیٹے دیتا ہے یا پھر لڑکے اور لڑکیاں ملا جلا کر دیتا ہے اور جسے چاہتا ہے بانجھ کر دیتا ہے وہ بڑے علم والا اور کامل قدرت والا ہے۔

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بیٹی کی پرورش ، جنت کی ضامن (Kamran Buneri, Karachi) لڑکی کو زندہ درگورکر دینے کا مطلب صرف یہ نہیں کہ اسے عملی طور پر زمین میں دفن کر دیا جائے جیسا کہ زمانہ جاہلیت میں لوگوں کا مذموم عمل تھا بلکہ لڑکی کی پیدائش پر رنج و غم کرنا اور حقیر و ذلیل سمجھ کر اس کی طرف کوئی توجہ نہ دینا اور اس کی پرورش و پرداخت اور تعلیم و تربیت سے چشم پوشی کرنا بھی اسے زندہ دفن کرنے کے مترادف ہے۔ اسلام نے اس کی سخت مذمت کی ہے اور اسے ناپسندیدہ عمل قرار دیا ہے اور لڑکی کی پرورش و پرداخت اور اچھی تعلیم و تربیت میں کسی قسم کی کوتاہی نہ کرنے اور اسے اعلیٰ اخلاقی قدروں سے آراستہ کرنے اور بلند عادات و اطوار سے مزین کرنے کی نہ صرف ترغیب دی بلکہ اسےکارِثواب اور حصولِ جنت کا ذریعہ قرار دیا۔ حضرت ابو سعدی خدری رضی اللہ عنہ سے مروی ہے کہ رسول اکرم صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم نے فرمایا :"جس نے 3 لڑکیوں کی پرورش کی ، ان کی اچھی تربیت کی ، ان سے حسن سلوک کیا پھر ان کا نکاح کردیا تو اس کے لئے جنت واجب ہوگئی" (ابوداؤد) حضرت عبداللہ بن عباس رضی اللہ عنہ روایت کرتے ہیں کہ محسن انسانیت صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم نے فرمایا: "جس شخص کے یہاں بچی پیدا ہوئی اور اس نے جاہلیت کے طریقے پر زندہ درگور نہیں کیا اور نہ اس کو حقیر و ذلیل سمجھا اور نہ لڑکوں کو اس کے مقابلے میں ترجیح دی تو اللہ تعالیٰ اسی شخص کو جنت میں داخل فرمائے گا" (ابوداؤد) ام المومنین حضرت عائشہ فرماتی ہیں کہ " میرے پاس ایک عورت آئی۔ اس کے ساتھ دو بچیاں تھیں ، وہ مجھ سے کچھ مانگنے کے لئے آئی تھی۔ اس وقت میرے پاس ایک کھجور کے علاوہ کچھ نہیں تھا وہی میں نے اس کو دے دی۔ میں نے دیکھا کہ اس نے اس نے کھجور کو ان دونوں بچیوں میں تقسیم کردیا اور خود کچھ نہیں کھایا۔ اس خاتون کے چلے جانے کے بعد کچھ دیر بعد رحمت عالم صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم تشریف لائے تو میں نے آپ صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم سے اس عورت کا سارا حال سنایا کہ باوجود بھوکی رہنے کے اس نے بچیوں کو ترجیح دی" یہ سن کر محسن انسانیت صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم نے فرمایا : "جو شخص لڑکیوں کے بارے میں آزمایا جائے یعنی اس کے یہاں لڑکیاں پیدا ہوں اور پھر وہ ان سے اچھا سلوک کرے ، انہیں بوجھ نہ سمجھے تو یہ لڑکیاں اس کے لئے دوزخ کی آگ سے ڈھال بن جائیں گی" (مشکوۃ شریف) حضرت انس رضی اللہ عنہ سے روایت ہے کہ محسن انسانیت صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم نے فرمایا : جس کسی نے دو لڑکیوں کی پرورش کی یہاں تک کہ وہ بالغ ہوگئیں " انگشتِ شہادت اور درمیانی انگلی سے اشارہ کرتے ہوئے رحمت عالم صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم نے فرمایا "تو میں اور وہ اس طرح جنت میں داخل ہوں گے" جس طرح ایک بچی کی پیدائش رحمتِ خدا وندی کی خوشخبری لے کر آتی ہے اور اس کی پرورش والدین کے لئے جہنم کی آگ سے نجات کا ذریعہ بنتی ہے اسی طرح اس کی عمدہ تعلیم و تربیت بھی جنت کی عظیم نعمتوں کی بشارت سناتی ہے۔ حضرت عبد اللہ بن عباس رضی اللہ عنہ حضور اقدس صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم کا ارشاد گرامی نقل کرتے ہیں کہ "جس شخص نے 3 لڑکیوں یا 3 بہنوں کی سرپرستی کی اور ان کے ساتھ شفقت و محبت کا معاملہ کیا یہاں تک کہ اللہ تعالیٰ انہیں بے نیاز کردے تو ایسے شخص کے لئے اللہ تعالیٰ جنت واجب کر دیتا ہے" اس پر کسی نے دریافت کیا کہ اگر 2 ہی ہوں تو آپ نے فرمایا:"2 لڑکیوں کی سرپرستی پر بھی یہی ثواب ملے گا "(بخاری) حضرت عائشہ رضی اللہ عنہا سے روایت ہے کہ رسول اللہ صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم نے ارشاد فرمایا: "جو لڑکیوں کے بارے میں آزمایا جائے اور ان کے ساتھ اچھا برتاؤ کرے تو وہ لڑکیاں ان کے لئے جہنم کی آگ سے ڈھال بن جائیں گی" (مسلم) حضرت عبداللہ بن مسعود رضی اللہ عنہ سے روایت ہے کہ رسول صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم نے ارشاد فرمایا کہ "جس شخص کے ہاں لڑکی پیدا ہو اور وہ خدا کی دی ہوئی نعمتوں کی اس پر بارش کرے اور تعلیم و تربیت اور حسنِ ادب سے بہرہ ور کرے تو میں خود ایسے شخص کے لئے جہنم کی آڑ بن جاؤں گا" (بخاری) اسلام نے لڑکیوں کو اچھی طرح پرورش کی ترغیب دیکر لوگوں کے قلوب اور اذہان میں یہ تصور پختہ کرنے کی کوشش کی ہے کہ مرد کے مقابلے میں عورت بے قیمت اور بے حیثیت نہیں ہوتی بلکہ وہ تو قدرت کا گراں مایہ عطیہ ہے۔ اس میں مردوں کے مقابلے میں انس و محبت ، ہمدردی و غمخواری بدرجہ اتم پائی جاتی ہے۔ اسی لئے محسن انسانیت صلی اللہ علیہ وسلم نے ارشاد فرمایا " لڑکیوں سے نفرت مت کرو ، وہ تو بڑی غم خوار اور بڑی قیمتی ہیں " (مسند احمد)

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اگر آپ نے جینا سیکھ لیا تو یقین جانیں آپ نے ھر فن سکھ لیا اس کے بعد اس سوال کی گنجایش ھی نھین کہ آپ نے اور کیا ہنر سیکھا۔۔۔۔۔۔

Muhammad Shahzad

C++

The C-Style Character String:

S.N.	Function & Purpose
1	strcpy(s1, s2); Copies string s2 into string s1.
2	strcat(s1, s2); Concatenates string s2 onto the end of string s1.
3	strlen(s1); Returns the length of string s1.
4	strcmp(s1, s2); Returns 0 if s1 and s2 are the same; less than 0 if s1<s2; greater than 0 if s1>s2.

String

C# string function

String Functions	Definitions
GetHashCode()	This method returns HashValue of specified string.
GetType()	It returns the System.Type of current instance.
GetTypeCode()	It returns the Stystem.TypeCode for class System.String.
IndexOf()	Returns the index position of first occurrence of specified character.

C library

The string.h header defines one variable type, one macro, and various functions for manipulating arrays of characters.

Library Variables

Following is the variable type defined in the header string.h:

S.N.	Variable & Description
1	size_t This is the unsigned integral type and is the result of the sizeofkeyword.

Library Macros

Following is the macro defined in the header string.h:

S.N.	Macro & Description
1	NULL This macro is the value of a null pointer constant.

Library Functions

Following are the functions defined in the header string.h:

S.N.	Function & Description
1	void *memchr(const void *str, int c, size_t n) Searches for the first occurrence of the character c (an unsigned char) in the first n bytes of the string pointed to, by the argument str.
2	int memcmp(const void *str1, const void *str2, size_t n) Compares the first n bytes of str1 and str2.
3	void *memcpy(void *dest, const void *src, size_t n) Copies n characters from src to dest.
4	void *memmove(void *dest, const void *src, size_t n) Another function to copy n characters from str2 to str1.
5	void *memset(void *str, int c, size_t n) Copies the character c (an unsigned char) to the first n characters of the string pointed to, by the argument str.
6	char *strcat(char *dest, const char *src) Appends the string pointed to, by src to the end of the string pointed to by dest.
7	char *strncat(char *dest, const char *src, size_t n) Appends the string pointed to, by src to the end of the string pointed to, by dest up to n characters long.
8	char *strchr(const char *str, int c) Searches for the first occurrence of the character c (an unsigned char) in the string pointed to, by the argument str.
9	int strcmp(const char *str1, const char *str2) Compares the string pointed to, by str1 to the string pointed to bystr2.
10	int strncmp(const char *str1, const char *str2, size_t n) Compares at most the first n bytes of str1 and str2.
11	int strcoll(const char *str1, const char *str2) Compares string str1 to str2. The result is dependent on the LC_COLLATE setting of the location.
12	char *strcpy(char *dest, const char *src) Copies the string pointed to, by src to dest.
13	char *strncpy(char *dest, const char *src, size_t n) Copies up to n characters from the string pointed to, by src to dest.
14	size_t strcspn(const char *str1, const char *str2) Calculates the length of the initial segment of str1 which consists entirely of characters not in str2.
15	char *strerror(int errnum) Searches an internal array for the error number errnum and returns a pointer to an error message string.
16	size_t strlen(const char *str) Computes the length of the string str up to but not including the terminating null character.
17	char *strpbrk(const char *str1, const char *str2) Finds the first character in the string str1 that matches any character specified in str2.
18	char *strrchr(const char *str, int c) Searches for the last occurrence of the character c (an unsigned char) in the string pointed to by the argument str.
19	size_t strspn(const char *str1, const char *str2) Calculates the length of the initial segment of str1 which consists entirely of characters in str2.
20	char *strstr(const char *haystack, const char *needle) Finds the first occurrence of the entire string needle (not including the terminating null character) which appears in the string haystack.
21	char *strtok(char *str, const char *delim) Breaks string str into a series of tokens separated by delim.
22	size_t strxfrm(char *dest, const char *src, size_t n) Transforms the first n characters of the string src into corrent locale and places them in the string dest.

What is DDOS attack ?

A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack occurs when multiple systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, usually one or more web servers. Such an attack is often the result of multiple compromised systems (for example a botnet) flooding the targeted system with traffic.

Details about hacker

What is a Hacker?

Brian Harvey
University of California, Berkeley
In one sense it's silly to argue about the ``true'' meaning of a word. A word means whatever people use it to mean. I am not the Academie Française; I can't force Newsweek to use the word ``hacker'' according to my official definition.
Still, understanding the etymological history of the word ``hacker'' may help in understanding the current social situation.
The concept of hacking entered the computer culture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the 1960s. Popular opinion at MIT posited that there are two kinds of students, tools and hackers. A ``tool'' is someone who attends class regularly, is always to be found in the library when no class is meeting, and gets straight As. A ``hacker'' is the opposite: someone who never goes to class, who in fact sleeps all day, and who spends the night pursuing recreational activities rather than studying. There was thought to be no middle ground.
What does this have to do with computers? Originally, nothing. But there are standards for success as a hacker, just as grades form a standard for success as a tool. The true hacker can't just sit around all night; he must pursue some hobby with dedication and flair. It can be telephones, or railroads (model, real, or both), or science fiction fandom, or ham radio, or broadcast radio. It can be more than one of these. Or it can be computers. [In 1986, the word ``hacker'' is generally used among MIT students to refer not to computer hackers but to building hackers, people who explore roofs and tunnels where they're not supposed to be.]
A ``computer hacker,'' then, is someone who lives and breathes computers, who knows all about computers, who can get a computer to do anything. Equally important, though, is the hacker's attitude. Computer programming must be a hobby, something done for fun, not out of a sense of duty or for the money. (It's okay to make money, but that can't be the reason for hacking.)
A hacker is an aesthete.
There are specialties within computer hacking. An algorithm hacker knows all about the best algorithm for any problem. A system hacker knows about designing and maintaining operating systems. And a ``password hacker'' knows how to find out someone else's password. That's what Newsweek should be calling them.
Someone who sets out to crack the security of a system for financial gain is not a hacker at all. It's not that a hacker can't be a thief, but a hacker can't be a professional thief. A hacker must be fundamentally an amateur, even though hackers can get paid for their expertise. A password hacker whose primary interest is in learning how the system works doesn't therefore necessarily refrain from stealing information or services, but someone whose primary interest is in stealing isn't a hacker. It's a matter of emphasis.

Ethics and Aesthetics

Throughout most of the history of the human race, right and wrong were relatively easy concepts. Each person was born into a particular social role, in a particular society, and what to do in any situation was part of the traditional meaning of the role. This social destiny was backed up by the authority of church or state.
This simple view of ethics was destroyed about 200 years ago, most notably by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant is in many ways the inventor of the 20th Century. He rejected the ethical force of tradition, and created the modern idea of autonomy. Along with this radical idea, he introduced the centrality of rational thought as both the glory and the obligation of human beings. There is a paradox in Kant: Each person makes free, autonomous choices, unfettered by outside authority, and yet each person is compelled by the demands of rationality to accept Kant's ethical principle, the Categorical Imperative. This principle is based on the idea that what is ethical for an individual must be generalizable to everyone.
Modern cognitive psychology is based on Kant's ideas. Central to the functioning of the mind, most people now believe, is information processing and rational argument. Even emotions, for many psychologists, are a kind of theorem based on reasoning from data. Kohlberg's theory of moral development interprets moral weakness as cognitive weakness, the inability to understand sophisticated moral reasoning, rather than as a failure of will. Disputed questions of ethics, like abortion, are debated as if they were questions of fact, subject to rational proof.
Since Kant, many philosophers have refined his work, and many others have disagreed with it. For our purpose, understanding what a hacker is, we must consider one of the latter, Sören Kierkegaard (1813-1855). A Christian who hated the established churches, Kierkegaard accepted Kant's radical idea of personal autonomy. But he rejected Kant's conclusion that a rational person is necessarily compelled to follow ethical principles. In the book Either-Or he presents a dialogue between two people. One of them accepts Kant's ethical point of view. The other takes an aesthetic point of view: what's important in life is immediate experience.

The choice between the ethical and the aesthetic is not the choice between good and evil, it is the choice whether or not to choose in terms of good and evil. At the heart of the aesthetic way of life, as Kierkegaard characterises it, is the attempt to lose the self in the immediacy of present experience. The paradigm of aesthetic expression is the romantic lover who is immersed in his own passion. By contrast the paradigm of the ethical is marriage, a state of commitment and obligation through time, in which the present is bound by the past and to the future. Each of the two ways of life is informed by different concepts, incompatible attitudes, rival premises. [MacIntyre, p. 39]

Kierkegaard's point is that no rational argument can convince us to follow the ethical path. That decision is a radically free choice. He is not, himself, neutral about it; he wants us to choose the ethical. But he wants us to understand that we do have a real choice to make. The basis of his own choice, of course, was Christian faith. That's why he sees a need for religious conviction even in the post-Kantian world. But the ethical choice can also be based on a secular humanist faith.
A lesson on the history of philosophy may seem out of place in a position paper by a computer scientist about a pragmatic problem. But Kierkegaard, who lived a century before the electronic computer, gave us the most profound understanding of what a hacker is. A hacker is an aesthete.
The life of a true hacker is episodic, rather than planned. Hackers create ``hacks.'' A hack can be anything from a practical joke to a brilliant new computer program. (VisiCalc was a great hack. Its imitators are not hacks.) But whatever it is, a good hack must be aesthetically perfect. If it's a joke, it must be a complete one. If you decide to turn someone's dorm room upside-down, it's not enough to epoxy the furniture to the ceiling. You must also epoxy the pieces of paper to the desk.
Steven Levy, in the book Hackers, talks at length about what he calls the ``hacker ethic.'' This phrase is very misleading. What he has discovered is the Hacker Aesthetic, the standards for art criticism of hacks. For example, when Richard Stallman says that information should be given out freely, his opinion is not based on a notion of property as theft, which (right or wrong) would be an ethical position. His argument is that keeping information secret is inefficient; it leads to unaesthetic duplication of effort.
The original hackers at MIT-AI were mostly undergraduates, in their late teens or early twenties. The aesthetic viewpoint is quite appropriate to people of that age. An epic tale of passionate love between 20-year-olds can be very moving. A tale of passionate love between 40-year-olds is more likely to be comic. To embrace the aesthetic life is not to embrace evil; hackers need not be enemies of society. They are young and immature, and should be protected for their own sake as well as ours.
In practical terms, the problem of providing moral education to hackers is the same as the problem of moral education in general. Real people are not wholly ethical or wholly aesthetic; they shift from one viewpoint to another. (They may not recognize the shifts. That's why Levy says ``ethic'' when talking about an aesthetic.) Some tasks in moral education are to raise the self-awareness of the young, to encourage their developing ethical viewpoint, and to point out gently and lovingly the situations in which their aesthetic impulses work against their ethical standards.

Reference

MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981.